A doctorate (from Latin docere, "to teach") or doctor's degree (from Latin doctor, "teacher") or doctoral degree is an academic degree awarded by universities, derived from the ancient formalism licentia docendi ("licence to teach"). In most countries, a research degree qualifies the holder to teach at university level in the degree's field or work in a specific profession Distance Education Differential Tuition is an additional charge for distance education courses and will range from a minimum of $40 per semester credit hour to a maximum of $ per semester credit hour. The program fee will be applied to full-time College of Architecture graduate students enrolled for nine credit hours or more at Texas A&M Raphael, A. (Summer ). A needs assessment: A study of perceived need for student services by distance blogger.com Journal of Distance Learning Administration, IX(II). Reifler, C. B. (). Epidemiologic aspects of college mental health. Journal of the American College Health Association 19, Russo-Gleicher, R.J. ()
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A doctorate from Latin docere"to teach" or doctor's degree from Latin doctor"teacher" or doctoral degree is an academic degree awarded by universities, derived from the ancient formalism licentia docendi "licence to teach".
In most countries, a research degree qualifies the holder to teach at university level in the degree's field or work in a specific profession. There are a number of doctoral degrees; the most common is the Doctor of Philosophy PhDawarded in many different fields, ranging from the humanities to scientific dissertation full text distance learning. In the United States and some other countries, there are also some types of technical or professional degrees that include "doctor's" in their name and are classified as a doctorate in some of those countries.
Professional doctorates historically came about to meet the needs of practitioners in a variety of disciplines. Many universities also award honorary doctorates to individuals deemed worthy of special recognition, either for scholarly work or other contributions to the university or society.
The term doctor derives from Latin, meaning "teacher" or "instructor". The doctorate Latin: doctoratus appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach Latin licentia docendi at a university, dissertation full text distance learning. The right to grant a licentia docendi i. the doctorate was originally reserved to the Catholic churchwhich required the applicant to pass a test take an oath of allegianceand pay a fee.
The Third Council of the Lateran of guaranteed access—at that time essentially free of charge—to all able applicants. Applicants were tested for aptitude. In the right was granted by the pope to the University of Pariswhere it became a universal license to teach licentia ubique docendi. George Makdisi theorizes that the ijazah issued in early Islamic madrasahs was the origin of the doctorate later issued in medieval European universities. Stewart notes a difference in the granting authority individual professor for the ijzazah and a corporate entity in the case of the university doctorate.
The doctorate of philosophy developed in Dissertation full text distance learning in the 17th century likely c. Still, it is used in a broader sense under its original Greek meaning: "love of wisdom". The Doctorate of Philosophy adheres to this historic convention, even though the degrees are not always for the study of philosophy. Chris Park explains that it was dissertation full text distance learning until formal education dissertation full text distance learning degree programs were standardized in the early 19th century that the Doctorate of Philosophy was reintroduced in Germany as a research degree, [14] abbreviated as Dr, dissertation full text distance learning.
similar to Ph. in Anglo-American countries. Germany, however, differentiated then in more detail between doctorates in philosophy and doctorates in the natural sciences, abbreviated as Dr. and law Dr. University doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild.
The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to dissertation full text distance learning guild of "Masters of Arts" was seven years, matching the apprenticeship term for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master's degree. University degrees, including doctorates, were originally restricted to men. The first women to be granted doctorates were Juliana Morell in at Lyons [15] or maybe Avignog she "defended theses" in oralthough claims that she received a doctorate in canon law in have been discredited[ citation needed ] Elena Cornaro Piscopia in at the University of PaduaLaura Bassi in at Bologna UniversityDorothea Erxleben in at Halle University and María Isidra de Guzmán y de la Cerda in at Complutense UniversityMadrid.
The use and meaning of the doctorate have changed over time and are subject to regional variations. For instance, until the early 20th century, dissertation full text distance learning, few academic staff or professors in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders.
After that time, dissertation full text distance learning, the German practice of requiring lecturers to have completed a research doctorate spread. Universities' shift to research-oriented education based upon the scientific method, inquiry, and observation increased the doctorate's importance.
Today, a research doctorate PhD or its equivalent as defined in the US by the NSF is generally a prerequisite for an academic career. However, many recipients do not work in academia. Professional doctorates developed in the United States from the 19th century onward. The first professional doctorate offered in the United States was the M. at Kings College now Columbia University after the medical school's founding in It was awarded for further study after the qualifying Bachelor of Medicine M.
rather than a qualifying degree. It did not become established as a graduate degree until As the standard qualifying degree in medicine,the MD gave that profession the ability through the American Medical Associationdissertation full text distance learning, established in for this purpose to set and raise standards for entry into professional practice.
In the shape of the German-style PhD, the modern research degree was first awarded in the US inat Yale University. In the UK, research doctorates initially took higher doctorates in Science and Letters, first introduced at Durham University in The first titled a DPhil was awarded at the University of Oxford.
Following the MD, the next professional doctorate in the US, the Juris Doctor J. However, it took a long time to be accepted, not replacing the Bachelor of Laws LLB until the s, dissertation full text distance learning, by which time the LLB was generally taken as a graduate degree. Notably, the JD and LLB curriculum were identical, dissertation full text distance learning, with the degree being renamed as a doctorate, and it like the MD was not equivalent to the PhD, raising criticism that it was "not a 'true Doctorate ' ".
Still, they were set up as research degrees at the same level as PhDs but with some taught components and a professional dissertation full text distance learning for research work. Now usually called higher doctorates in the United Kingdom, the older-style doctorates take much longer to complete since candidates must show themselves to be leading experts in their subjects.
These doctorates are less common than the PhD in some countries and are often awarded honoris causa. The habilitation is still used for academic recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU. It involves either a long new thesis a second book or a portfolio of research publications. The habilitation highest available degree demonstrates independent and thorough research, experience in teaching and lecturing, and, more recently, the ability to generate supportive funding.
The habilitation follows the research doctorate, and in Germany, it can be a requirement for appointment as a Privatdozent or professor. Since the Middle Agesthe number and types of doctorates awarded by universities have proliferated throughout the world. Practice varies from one country to another. While a doctorate usually entitles one to be addressed as "doctor", the use of the title varies widely, depending on the type and the associated occupation.
Research doctorates are awarded in recognition of publishable academic research, at least in principle, in a peer-reviewed academic journal. The best-known research degree title in the English-speaking worldis Doctor of Philosophy abbreviated Ph.
In the U. or DSocSci dissertation full text distance learningDoctor of Management D. the German natural science doctorate Doctor rerum naturalium Dr. and the economics and social science doctorate Doctor rerum politicarum Dr.
The UK Doctor of Medicine MD or MD Res and Doctor of Dental Surgery DDS are research doctorates. or ThD dissertation full text distance learningDoctor of Practical Theology DPT [29] and the Doctor of Sacred Theology S. are research doctorates in theology. Criteria for research doctorates vary but typically require completion of a substantial body of original research, which may be presented as a single thesis or dissertationor as a portfolio of shorter project reports thesis by publication.
The submitted dissertation is assessed by a committee of, typically, internal, and external examiners. It is then typically defended by the candidate during an oral examination called viva voce in the UK and India by the committee, which then awards the degree unconditionally, awards the degree conditionally ranging from corrections in grammar to additional researchor denies the degree. Candidates may also be required to complete graduate-level courses in their field and study research methodology.
Criteria for admission to doctoral programs vary. Students may be admitted with a bachelor's degree in the U. and the U. However, elsewhere, e. in Finland and many other European countries, a master's degree is required. The time required to complete a research doctorate varies from three years, excluding undergraduate study, to six years or more.
Licentiate degrees vary widely in their meaning, and a few countries are doctoral-level qualifications. Sweden awards the licentiate degree as a two-year qualification at the doctoral level and the doctoral degree PhD as a four-year qualification. In Belgium, the licentiate was the basic university degree prior to the Bologna Process and was equivalent to a bachelor's degree. While other licences such as the Licence in Canon Law are at the level of master's degrees.
A dissertation full text distance learning tier of research doctorates may be awarded based on a formally submitted portfolio of published research of an exceptionally high standard. Examples include the Doctor of Science DSc and Doctor of Letters DLitt degrees found in the UK, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries, and the traditional doctorates in Scandinavia. The École Saint-Thomas-d'Aquin of the Université catholique de Louvainfor instance, dissertation full text distance learning, has offered the opportunity for students who had already earned a doctorate to earn the degree of Maître Agrégé M.
Magister Aggregatus. The habilitation teaching qualification facultas docendi or "faculty to teach" under a university procedure with a thesis and an exam is commonly regarded as belonging to this category in GermanyAustriaFranceLiechtensteinSwitzerlandPolandetc. The degree developed in Germany in the 19th century "when holding a doctorate seemed no longer sufficient to guarantee a proficient transfer of knowledge to the next generation.
In Austria, the habilitation bestows the graduate with the facultas docendivenia legendi. Sincethe honorary title of "Privatdozent" before this, completing the habilitation resulted in appointment as a civil servant.
In many Central and Eastern Europe countries, the degree gives venia legendiLatin for "the permission to lecture," or ius docendi"the dissertation full text distance learning to teach," a specific academic subject at universities for a lifetime. The French academic system used to have a higher doctorate, called the "state doctorate" doctorat d'État.
Still, it was superseded by the habilitation habilitation à diriger des recherches"accreditation to supervise research", abbreviated HDR in Higher doctorates are often also awarded honoris causa when a university formally recognize an individual's achievements and contributions to a particular field.
Depending on the country, professional doctorates may either be research degrees at the same level as PhDs, dissertation full text distance learning. The relationship between research and practice is considered important or professional degrees with little or no research content aimed at professional performance.
Many professional doctorates are named "Doctor of [subject name] and abbreviated using the form "D[subject abbreviation]" or "[subject abbreviation]D", [29] or may use the more generic titles "Professional Doctorate", abbreviated "ProfDoc" or "DProf", [29] " Doctor of Professional Studies " DPS [47] [48] or "Doctor of Professional Practice" DPP. In the US, professional doctorates formally "doctor's degree — professional practice" in government classifications are defined by the US Department of Education 's National Center for Educational Statistics.
These degrees that require a minimum of six years of university-level study including any pre-professional bachelor's or associate degree and meet the academic requirements for professional licensure in the discipline, dissertation full text distance learning. However, individual programs may have different requirements. In contrast to the US, many countries reserve the term "doctorate" for research degrees.
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A doctorate (from Latin docere, "to teach") or doctor's degree (from Latin doctor, "teacher") or doctoral degree is an academic degree awarded by universities, derived from the ancient formalism licentia docendi ("licence to teach"). In most countries, a research degree qualifies the holder to teach at university level in the degree's field or work in a specific profession Distance Education Differential Tuition is an additional charge for distance education courses and will range from a minimum of $40 per semester credit hour to a maximum of $ per semester credit hour. The program fee will be applied to full-time College of Architecture graduate students enrolled for nine credit hours or more at Texas A&M Raphael, A. (Summer ). A needs assessment: A study of perceived need for student services by distance blogger.com Journal of Distance Learning Administration, IX(II). Reifler, C. B. (). Epidemiologic aspects of college mental health. Journal of the American College Health Association 19, Russo-Gleicher, R.J. ()
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