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NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health. National Research Council US Committee on Identifying and Assessing Unintended Effects of Genetically Engineered Foods on Human Health. Safety of Genetically Engineered Foods: Approaches to Assessing Unintended Health Effects.
Washington DC : National Academies Press US ; This essay on molecular biology lab provides a brief description of genetic modification methods used to develop new plant, animal, and microbial strains for use as human food.
The next chapter Chapter 3 presents a detailed analysis of the likelihood for these methods to result in unintentional compositional changes, essay on molecular biology lab. Modification to produce desired traits in plants, essay on molecular biology lab, animals, and microbes used for food began about 10, years ago. These changes, along with natural evolutionary changes, have resulted in common food species that are now genetically different from their ancestors.
Advantageous outcomes of these genetic modifications include increased food production, reliability, and yields; enhanced taste and nutritional value; and decreased losses due to various biotic and abiotic stresses, such as fungal and bacterial pathogens.
These objectives continue to motivate modern breeders and food scientists, who have designed newer genetic modification methods for identifying, selecting, and analyzing individual organisms that possess genetically enhanced features. For plant species, essay on molecular biology lab, it can take up to 12 years to develop, evaluate, and release a new variety of crop in accordance with international requirements, which specify that any new variety must meet at least three criteria: it must be genetically distinct from all other varieties, it must be genetically uniform through the population, and it must be genetically stable UPOV, While advances in modification methods hold the potential for reducing the time it takes to bring new foods to the marketplace, an important benefit of a long evaluation period is that it provides opportunities for greater assurance that deleterious features will be identified and potentially harmful new varieties can be eliminated before commercial release.
As discussed more fully in Chapter 5it is both prudent and preferable to identify potentially hazardous products before they are made commercially available, and with few exceptions standard plant breeding practices have been very successful in doing so. The easiest method of plant genetic modification see Operational Definitions in Chapter 1used essay on molecular biology lab our nomadic ancestors and continuing today, is simple selection. The others are eaten or discarded.
The seeds from the superior plants are sown to produce a new generation of plants, all or most of which will carry and express the desired traits. Over a period of several years, these plants or their seeds are saved and replanted, which increases the population of superior plants and shifts the genetic population so that it is dominated by the superior genotype. This very old method of breeding has been enhanced with modern technology.
An example of modern methods of simple selection is marker-assisted selection, which uses molecular analysis to detect plants likely to express desired features, such as disease resistance to one or more specific pathogens in a population. Superior traits are those considered beneficial to humans, as well as to domesticated animals that consume a plant-based diet; they are not necessarily beneficial to the plant in an ecological or evolutionary context, essay on molecular biology lab.
Often traits considered beneficial to breeders are detrimental to the plant from the standpoint of environmental fitness. For example, the reduction of unpalatable chemicals in a plant makes it more appealing to human consumers but may also attract more feeding by insects and other pests, making it less likely to survive in an unmanaged environment. As a result, cultivated crop varieties rarely establish populations in the wild when they escape from the farm. Conversely, some traits that enhance a plant's resistance to disease may also be harmful to humans.
Crossing occurs when a plant breeder takes pollen from one plant and brushes it onto the pistil of a sexually compatible plant, producing a hybrid that carries genes from both parents. When the hybrid progeny reaches flowering maturity, it also may be used as a parent. Plant breeders usually want to combine the useful features of two plants.
For example, they might add a disease-resistance gene from one plant to another that is high-yielding but disease-susceptible, while leaving behind any undesirable genetic traits of the disease-resistant plant, essay on molecular biology lab, such as poor fertility and seed yield, susceptibility to insects or essay on molecular biology lab diseases, or the production of antinutritional metabolites.
Because of the random nature of recombining genes and traits in crossed plants, breeders essay on molecular biology lab have to make hundreds or thousands of hybrid progeny to create and identify those few that possess useful features with a minimum of undesirable features.
For example, the majority of progeny may show the desired disease resistance, but unwanted genetic features of the disease-resistant parent may also be present in some. Crossing is still the mainstay of modern plant breeding, but many other techniques have been added to the breeders' tool kit. Interspecies crossing can take place through various means.
Closely related species, such as cultivated oat Avena sativa and its weedy relative wild oat Avena fatuamay cross-pollinate for exchange of genetic information, although this is not generally the case. Genes from one species also can naturally integrate into the genomes of more distant relatives under certain conditions. Some food plants can carry genes that originate in different species, transferred both by nature and by human intervention. For example, common wheat varieties carry genes from rye.
A common potato, Solanum tuberosumcan cross with relatives of other species, such as S. acaule Kozukue et al. chacoense Sanford et al. Chromosome engineering is the term given to nonrecombinant deoxyribonucleic acid rDNA cytogenetic manipulations, in which portions of chromosomes from near or distant species are recombined through a natural process called chromosomal translocation.
Searspioneered the human exploitation of this process, which proved valuable for transferring traits that were otherwise unattainable, such as pest or disease resistance, into crop species. However, because transferring large segments of chromosomes also transferred a number of neutral or detrimental genes, the utility of this technique was limited. Recent refinements allow plant breeders to restrict the transferred genetic material, focusing more on the gene of interest Lukaszewski, As a result, chromosome engineering is becoming more competitive with rDNA essay on molecular biology lab in its ability to transfer relatively small pieces of DNA.
Several crop species, such as corn, soybean, rice, barley, and potato, have been improved using chromosome engineering Gupta and Tsuchiya, Sometimes human technical intervention is required to complete an interspecies gene transfer, essay on molecular biology lab. Some plants will cross-pollinate and the resulting fertilized hybrid embryo develops but is unable to mature and sprout. Modern plant breeders work around this problem by pollinating naturally and then removing the plant embryo before it stops growing, placing it in a tissue-culture environment where it can complete its development.
Essay on molecular biology lab embryo rescue is not considered genetic engineering, and it is not commonly used to derive new varieties directly, but it is used instead as an intermediary step in transferring genes from distant, sexually incompatible relatives through intermediate, partially compatible relatives of both the donor and recipient species. Recent advances in tissue-culture technologies have provided new opportunities for recombining genes from different plant sources.
In somatic hybridization, a process also known as cell fusion, cells growing in a culture medium are stripped of their protective walls, usually using pectinase, cellulase, and hemicellulase enzymes. These stripped cells, called protoplastsare pooled from different sources and, through the use of varied techniques such as electrical shock, are fused with one another. When two protoplasts fuse, the resulting somatic hybrid contains the genetic material from both plant sources.
Essay on molecular biology lab method overcomes physical barriers to pollen-based hybridization, but not basic chromosomal incompatibilities, essay on molecular biology lab.
If the somatic hybrid is compatible and healthy, it may grow a new cell wall, begin mitotic divisions, and ultimately grow into a hybrid plant that carries genetic features of both parents. While protoplast fusions are easily accomplished, as almost all plants and animals have cells suitable for this process, relatively few are capable of regenerating a whole organism, and fewer still are capable of sexual reproduction. This non-genetic engineering technique is not common in plant breeding as the resulting range of successful, essay on molecular biology lab, fertile hybrids has not extended much beyond what is possible using other conventional technologies.
Somaclonal variation is the name given to spontaneous mutations that occur when plant cells are grown in vitro. For many years plants regenerated from tis-sue culture sometimes had novel features. It was not until the s that two Australian scientists thought this phenomenon might provide a new source of genetic variability, and that some of the variant plants might carry attributes of value to plant breeders Larkin and Scowcroft, Through the s plant breeders around the world grew plants in essay on molecular biology lab and scored regenerants for potentially valuable variants in a range of different crops.
New varieties of several crops, such as flax, were developed and commercially released Rowland et al. Molecular analyses of these new varieties were not required by regulators at that time, nor were they conducted by developers to ascertain the nature of the underlying genetic changes driving the variant features. Somaclonal variation is still used by some breeders, particularly in developing countries, but this non-genetic engineering technique has largely been supplanted by more predictable genetic engineering technologies.
Mutation breeding involves exposing plants or seeds to mutagenic agents e. The breeder can adjust the dose of the mutagen so that it is enough to result in some mutations, but not enough to be lethal. Typically a large number of plants or seeds are mutagenized, grown to reproductive maturity, and progeny are derived. The progeny essay on molecular biology lab assessed for phenotypic expression of potentially valuable new traits. As with somaclonal variation, essay on molecular biology lab, the vast majority of mutations resulting from this technique are deleterious, and only chance determines if any genetic changes useful to humans will appear.
Other than through varying the dosage, there is no means to control the effects of the mutagen or to target particular genes or traits. The mutagenic effects appear to be random throughout the genome and, even if a useful mutation occurs in a particular plant, deleterious mutations also will likely occur. Once a useful mutation is identified, breeders work to reduce the deleterious mutations or other undesirable features of the mutated plant.
Nevertheless, crops derived from mutation breeding still are likely to carry DNA alterations beyond the specific mutation that provided the superior trait. Induced-mutation crops in most countries including the United States are not regulated for food or environmental safety, and breeders generally do not conduct molecular genetic analyses on such crops to characterize the mutations or determine their extent.
Consequently, it is almost certain that mutations other than those resulting in essay on molecular biology lab useful traits also occur and may not be obvious, remaining uncharacterized with unknown effects. In the United States, crop varieties ranging from wheat to grapefruit have been mutated since the technique was first used in the s.
There are no records of the molecular characterizations of these mutant crops and, in most cases, no records to retrace their subsequent use. Several commercial crop varieties have been developed using cell selection, including varieties of soybeans Sebastian and Chaleff,canola Swanson et al.
The cells are then excised and grown in culture, essay on molecular biology lab. Initially the population is genetically essay on molecular biology lab, but changes can occur spontaneously as in somaclonal variation or be induced using mutagenic agents.
Cells with a desired phenotypic variation may be selected and regenerated into a whole plant. For example, essay on molecular biology lab, adding a suitable amount of the appropriate herbicide to the culture medium may identify cells expressing a novel variant phenotype of herbicide resistance, essay on molecular biology lab. In theory, all of essay on molecular biology lab normal, susceptible cells will succumb to the herbicide, but a newly resistant cell will survive essay on molecular biology lab perhaps even continue to grow.
An herbicide-resistant cell and its derived progeny cell line thus can be selected and regenerated into a whole plant, which is then tested to ensure that the phenotypic trait is stable and results from a heritable genetic alteration. In practice, many factors influence the success of the selection procedure, and the desired trait must have a biochemical basis that lends itself to selection in vitro and at a cellular level.
Breeders cannot select for increased yield in cell cultures because the cellular mechanism for this trait is not known. The advantage of cell selection over conventional breeding is the ability to inexpensively screen large numbers of cells in a petri dish in a short time instead of breeding a similar number of plants in an expensive, large field trial conducted over an entire growing season.
Like somaclonal variation, cell selection has largely been superceded by recombinant technologies because of their greater precision, essay on molecular biology lab rates of success, and fewer undocumented mutations. As noted in Chapter 1this report defines genetic engineering specifically as one type of genetic modification that involves an intended targeted change in a plant or animal gene sequence to effect a specific result through the use of rDNA technology.
A variety of genetic engineering techniques are described in the following text. Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a naturally occurring soil microbe best known for essay on molecular biology lab crown gall disease on susceptible plant species. It is an unusual pathogen because when it infects a host, it transfers a portion of its own DNA into the plant cell. The transferred DNA is stably integrated into the plant DNA, and the plant then reads and expresses the transferred genes as if they were its own.
The transferred genes direct the production of several substances that mediate the development of a crown gall.
Among these substances is one or more unusual nonprotein amino acids, called opines. Opines are translocated throughout the plant, so food developed from crown gall-infected plants will carry these opines. In the early s strains of Agrobacterium were essay on molecular biology lab that lacked the disease-causing genes but maintained the ability to attach to susceptible plant cells and transfer DNA. By substituting the DNA of interest for the crown gall disease-causing DNA, scientists derived new strains of Agrobacterium that deliver and stably integrate specific new genetic material into the cells of target plant species.
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AP Biology Lab Videos. Unfortunately, I wasn't able to find many videos that go through the AP Biology labs. That said, the Bozeman Science YouTube channel has lots of AP Biology lab videos that are certain to help you get a clearer understanding of how the experiments are conducted. Some types of labs are cuter than others The IB Biology syllabus is a list of all the content understandings (U), applications (A) and skills (S) that the IB Organization mandates are taught throughout the two years of the IB Biology higher level course. A full printable list of the syllabus can be seen here. While SHS does not necessarily progress through the syllabus statements in Feb 28, · Read also: The Most Impressive Social Issues Topics for Essay or Paper. Immune System Biology Research Topics: Biology topics to write about cannot be full without at least several ones dealing with the immune system. It is our main defense against different diseases, that’s why it is important to know more about it
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